Power-based electric vehicle energy consumption model: Model development and validation

The limited drive range (The maximum distance that an EV can travel.) of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is one of the major challenges that EV manufacturers are attempting to overcome. To this end, a simple, accurate, and efficient energy consumption model is needed to develop real-time eco-driving and eco-routing systems that can enhance the energy efficiency of EVs and thus extend their travel range. Although numerous publications have focused on the modeling of EV energy consumption levels, these studies are limited to measuring energy consumption of an EV's control algorithm, macro-project evaluations, or simplified well-to-wheels analyses. Consequently, this paper addresses this need by developing a simple EV energy model that computes an EV's instantaneous energy consumption using second-by-second vehicle speed, acceleration and roadway grade data as input variables. In doing so, the model estimates the instantaneous braking energy regeneration. The proposed model can be easily implemented in the following applications: in-vehicle, Smartphone eco-driving, eco-routing and transportation simulation software to quantify the network-wide energy consumption levels for a fleet of EVs. One of the main advantages of EVs is their ability to recover energy while braking using a regenerative braking system. State-of-the-art vehicle energy consumption models consider an average constant regenerative braking energy efficiency or regenerative braking factors that are mainly dependent on the vehicle's average speed. In an attempt to enhance EV energy consumption models, the proposed model computes the regenerative braking efficiency using the instantaneous vehicle operational variables. The proposed model accurately estimates the energy consumption, producing an average error of 5.9% relative to empirical data. The results also demonstrate that EVs can recover a higher amount of energy in an urban driving environment when compared to high speed highway driving using the proposed model. Moreover, the study also compared different electric vehicles and quantified the impact of auxiliary systems, including the air conditioning and heating systems, on vehicle energy consumption levels using the proposed energy model. The study demonstrated that the use of the heating and air conditioning system could significantly reduce the EV efficiency and travel range.