Technological Sovereignty and the New Digital Geopolitics: Comparative Quantum Governance in China, the United States, and the European Union

How do institutional differences shape the governance of quantum technologies? Comparing China, the United States, and the European Union through a structured, focused comparison of policy documents and standards (2018–2026), this article investigates governance pathways. It develops a configurational framework based on a strategic triangle of state direction, market coordination, and standard-setting capacity. Findings reveal three distinct hybrid trajectories: concentrated state direction in China; mission-oriented federal coordination with market dynamism in the United States; and multilevel normative coordination coupled with an industrial turn in the European Union. These configurations generate critical trade-offs across resource mobilization, commercialization, transparency, and interoperability. Finally, the article advances an operational comparative model and proposes a polycentric governance architecture centered on technical standards, post-quantum cryptographic migration, anticipatory review, and confidence-building measures.